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Baby Never Makes It to the Second Breast

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Region of the torso of a primate containing the mammary gland

Breast
Weibliche brust en.jpg

Morphology of human female breasts with the areola, nipple, and inframammary fold
Details
Avenue internal thoracic artery
Vein internal thoracic vein
Identifiers
Latin mamma ( mammalis 'of the breast')[one]
MeSH D001940
TA98 A16.0.02.001
TA2 7097
FMA 9601
Anatomical terminology

[edit on Wikidata]

The chest is one of two prominences located on the upper ventral region of a primate'due south torso. Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues.

In females, it serves every bit the mammary gland, which produces and secretes milk to feed infants.[ii] Subcutaneous fatty covers and envelops a network of ducts that converge on the nipple, and these tissues give the breast its size and shape. At the ends of the ducts are lobules, or clusters of alveoli, where milk is produced and stored in response to hormonal signals.[3] During pregnancy, the breast responds to a circuitous interaction of hormones, including estrogens, progesterone, and prolactin, that mediate the completion of its development, namely lobuloalveolar maturation, in preparation of lactation and breastfeeding.

Humans are the only animals with permanent breasts. At puberty, estrogens, in conjunction with growth hormone, cause permanent chest growth in female humans. This happens only to a much bottom extent in other primates—breast development in other primates generally only occurs with pregnancy. Forth with their major function in providing nutrition for infants, female breasts have social and sexual characteristics. Breasts have been featured in ancient and mod sculpture, fine art, and photography. They can figure prominently in the perception of a adult female'south body and sexual attractiveness. A number of cultures associate breasts with sexuality and tend to regard bare breasts in public as immodest or indecent. Breasts, especially the nipples, are an erogenous zone.

Etymology and terminology

The English word breast derives from the Old English word brēost ('breast, bosom') from Proto-Germanic *breustam (breast), from the Proto-Indo-European base bhreus– (to swell, to sprout).[4] The breast spelling conforms to the Scottish and Due north English dialectal pronunciations.[5] The Merriam-Webster Dictionary states that "Centre English language brest , [comes] from Old English brēost ; akin to Former High German brust ..., Old Irish brú [belly], [and] Russian bryukho "; the first known usage of the term was before the 12th century.[half-dozen]

A large number of colloquial terms for breasts are used in English, ranging from fairly polite terms to vulgar or slang.[7] Some vulgar slang expressions may exist considered to be derogatory or sexist to women.[8]

Evolutionary evolution

Humans are the just mammals whose breasts become permanently enlarged after sexual maturity (known in humans equally puberty). As of 2019[update], the reason for this evolutionary change was unknown.[nine] Several hypotheses accept been put forward:

A link has been proposed to processes for synthesizing the endogenous steroid hormone precursor dehydroepiandrosterone which takes place in fat rich regions of the body like the buttocks and breasts. These contributed to homo brain development and played a part in increasing brain size. Breast enlargement may for this purpose may have occurred equally early as Homo ergaster (1.7-i.iv MYA).[ten] Other chest formation hypotheses may have and so taken over as principal drivers.[11] [12] [13]

It has been suggested past zoologists Avishag and Amotz Zahavi that the size of the human breasts tin be explained by the handicap theory of sexual dimorphism. This would see the explanation for larger breasts every bit them existence an honest display of the women's health and power to grow and carry them in her life. Prospective mates can and then evaluate the genes of a potential mate for their ability to sustain her wellness even with the additional energy demanding burden she is carrying.[fourteen] [10]

The zoologist Desmond Morris describes a sociobiological approach in his popular science book The Naked Ape. He suggests, by making comparisons with the other primates, that breasts evolved to supercede swelling buttocks as a sex signal, of ovulation. He notes how humans accept, relatively speaking, big penises too every bit large breasts. Furthermore, early on humans adopted bipedalism and face-to-face coitus. He therefore suggested enlarged sexual signals helped maintain the bond betwixt a mated male and female even though they performed unlike duties and therefore were separated for lengths of fourth dimension.[fifteen] [10] [16]

The written report The Development of the Human Breast (2001) proposed that the rounded shape of a woman'due south breast evolved to prevent the sucking infant offspring from suffocating while feeding at the teat; that is, because of the human infant's small jaw, which did not project from the face to reach the nipple, he or she might block the nostrils against the mother's chest if it were of a flatter grade (cf. mutual chimpanzee). Theoretically, equally the human being jaw receded into the face, the woman's body compensated with round breasts.[17]

Ashley Montague (1965) proposed that breasts came about as an accommodation for babe feeding for a different reason as early man ancestors adopted bipedalism and the loss of body hair. Human upright opinion meant infants must exist carried at the hip or shoulder instead of on the dorsum every bit in the apes. This gives the infant less opportunity to find the nipple or the purchase to cling on to the mother'south body hair. The mobility of the nipple on a large breast in virtually human females gives the baby more power to notice grasp it and feed.[12]

Other suggestions include simply that permanent breasts attracted mates, that "pendulous" breasts gave infants something to cling to, or that permanent breasts shared the part of a camel's hump, to store fat as an energy reserve.[ix]

Anatomy

In women, the breasts overlie the pectoralis major muscles and extend on boilerplate from the level of the second rib to the level of the sixth rib in the front of the human being rib cage; thus, the breasts cover much of the chest expanse and the chest walls. At the front of the chest, the breast tissue can extend from the clavicle (collarbone) to the heart of the sternum (breastbone). At the sides of the chest, the breast tissue can extend into the axilla (armpit), and can reach as far to the back as the latissimus dorsi muscle, extending from the lower back to the humerus bone (the bone of the upper arm). As a mammary gland, the breast is composed of differing layers of tissue, predominantly 2 types: adipose tissue; and glandular tissue, which affects the lactation functions of the breasts.[18] : 115

Morphologically the breast is tear-shaped.[nineteen] The superficial tissue layer (superficial fascia) is separated from the peel by 0.v–ii.5 cm of subcutaneous fat (adipose tissue). The suspensory Cooper's ligaments are fibrous-tissue prolongations that radiate from the superficial fascia to the skin envelope. The female person developed breast contains 14–18 irregular lactiferous lobes that converge at the nipple. The 2.0–four.five mm milk ducts are immediately surrounded with dumbo connective tissue that support the glands. Milk exits the chest through the nipple, which is surrounded by a pigmented surface area of skin called the areola. The size of the areola can vary widely among women. The areola contains modified sweat glands known as Montgomery's glands. These glands secrete oily fluid that lubricate and protect the nipple during breastfeeding.[20] Volatile compounds in these secretions may also serve as an olfactory stimulus for the newborn's appetite.[21]

The dimensions and weight of the breast vary widely among women. A pocket-size-to-medium-sized breast weighs 500 grams (one.1 pounds) or less, and a large chest can weigh approximately 750 to 1,000 grams (1.seven to two.2 pounds) or more. The tissue composition ratios of the breast too vary among women. Some women's breasts have a higher proportion of glandular tissue than of adipose or connective tissues. The fat-to-connective-tissue ratio determines the density or firmness of the breast. During a woman's life, her breasts change size, shape, and weight due to hormonal changes during puberty, the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, breastfeeding, and menopause.[22] [23]

Glandular structure

The breast is an apocrine gland that produces the milk used to feed an baby. The nipple of the chest is surrounded by the areola (nipple-areola complex). The areola has many sebaceous glands, and the peel colour varies from pink to dark brown. The basic units of the breast are the terminal duct lobular units (TDLUs), which produce the fat breast milk. They give the breast its offspring-feeding functions every bit a mammary gland. They are distributed throughout the body of the breast. Approximately 2-thirds of the lactiferous tissue is within xxx mm of the base of the nipple. The last lactiferous ducts drain the milk from TDLUs into 4–18 lactiferous ducts, which drain to the nipple. The milk-glands-to-fat ratio is two:ane in a lactating woman, and 1:ane in a not-lactating woman. In addition to the milk glands, the breast is also composed of connective tissues (collagen, elastin), white fat, and the suspensory Cooper'south ligaments. Sensation in the breast is provided by the peripheral nervous system innervation by ways of the forepart (anterior) and side (lateral) cutaneous branches of the fourth-, 5th-, and 6th intercostal nerves. The T-4 nerve (Thoracic spinal nerve 4), which innervates the dermatomic area, supplies sensation to the nipple-areola complex.[24]

Lymphatic drainage

Approximately 75% of the lymph from the breast travels to the axillary lymph nodes on the aforementioned side of the body, whilst 25% of the lymph travels to the parasternal nodes (beside the sternum bone).[18] : 116 A small-scale amount of remaining lymph travels to the other chest and to the abdominal lymph nodes. The subareolar region has a lymphatic plexus known every bit the "subareolar plexus of Sappey".[25] The axillary lymph nodes include the pectoral (chest), subscapular (under the scapula), and humeral (humerus-os area) lymph-node groups, which bleed to the cardinal axillary lymph nodes and to the upmost axillary lymph nodes. The lymphatic drainage of the breasts is specially relevant to oncology because chest cancer is common to the mammary gland, and cancer cells can metastasize (pause away) from a neoplasm and be dispersed to other parts of the body by means of the lymphatic system.

Shape, texture, and back up

The morphologic variations in the size, shape, volume, tissue density, pectoral locale, and spacing of the breasts determine their natural shape, appearance, and position on a adult female'south chest. Chest size and other characteristics exercise not predict the fat-to-milk-gland ratio or the potential for the adult female to nurse an infant. The size and the shape of the breasts are influenced by normal-life hormonal changes (thelarche, menstruation, pregnancy, menopause) and medical weather condition (eastward.chiliad. virginal breast hypertrophy).[26] The shape of the breasts is naturally determined by the support of the suspensory Cooper'southward ligaments, the underlying musculus and bone structures of the chest, and by the skin envelope. The suspensory ligaments sustain the breast from the clavicle (collarbone) and the clavico-pectoral fascia (collarbone and chest) by traversing and encompassing the fat and milk-gland tissues. The breast is positioned, affixed to, and supported upon the chest wall, while its shape is established and maintained by the pare envelope.[ commendation needed ] In nigh women, one chest is slightly larger than the other.[19] More obvious and persistent asymmetry in breast size occurs in upward to 25% of women.[27]

While it has been a common belief that breastfeeding causes breasts to sag,[28] researchers have found that a adult female'southward breasts sag due to four key factors: cigarette smoking, number of pregnancies, gravity, and weight loss or gain.[29]

The base of operations of each chest is fastened to the chest by the deep fascia over the pectoralis major muscles. The space between the breast and the pectoralis major muscle, called retromammary infinite, gives mobility to the breast. The breast (thoracic crenel) progressively slopes outwards from the thoracic inlet (atop the breastbone) and to a higher place to the lowest ribs that support the breasts. The inframammary fold, where the lower portion of the breast meets the chest, is an anatomic feature created by the adherence of the breast skin and the underlying connective tissues of the breast; the International monetary fund is the lower-almost extent of the anatomic breast. Normal breast tissue typically has a texture that feels nodular or granular, to an extent that varies considerably from adult female to woman.[19]

Development

The breasts are principally equanimous of adipose, glandular, and connective tissues.[30] Because these tissues have hormone receptors,[30] [31] their sizes and volumes fluctuate according to the hormonal changes particular to thelarche (sprouting of breasts), menstruation (egg production), pregnancy (reproduction), lactation (feeding of offspring), and menopause (stop of menstruum).

Puberty

Breast development in puberty is measured with the five-stage Tanner Scale

The morphological structure of the human breast is identical in males and females until puberty. For pubescent girls in thelarche (the breast-development stage), the female sex hormones (principally estrogens) in conjunction with growth hormone promote the sprouting, growth, and development of the breasts. During this time, the mammary glands abound in size and volume and begin resting on the chest. These development stages of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, pubic hair, etc.) are illustrated in the v-phase Tanner Scale.[32]

During thelarche the developing breasts are sometimes of unequal size, and usually the left chest is slightly larger. This condition of asymmetry is transitory and statistically normal in female physical and sexual development.[33] Medical atmospheric condition can cause overdevelopment (e.g., virginal chest hypertrophy, macromastia) or underdevelopment (e.g., tuberous breast deformity, micromastia) in girls and women.

Approximately 2 years after the onset of puberty (a girl's first menstrual wheel), estrogen and growth hormone stimulate the evolution and growth of the glandular fat and suspensory tissues that compose the breast. This continues for approximately 4 years until the final shape of the breast (size, volume, density) is established at most the age of 21. Mammoplasia (chest enlargement) in girls begins at puberty, unlike all other primates in which breasts enlarge only during lactation.[xx]

Changes during the menstrual bicycle

During the menstrual cycle, the breasts are enlarged by premenstrual h2o retention and temporary growth.[34]

Pregnancy and breastfeeding

The breasts attain total maturity but when a woman'due south start pregnancy occurs.[35] Changes to the breasts are among the first signs of pregnancy. The breasts become larger, the nipple-areola complex becomes larger and darker, the Montgomery's glands enlarge, and veins sometimes become more than visible. Breast tenderness during pregnancy is common, especially during the first trimester. By mid-pregnancy, the chest is physiologically capable of lactation and some women can express colostrum, a grade of breast milk.[36]

Pregnancy causes elevated levels of the hormone prolactin, which has a key office in the production of milk. However, milk production is blocked past the hormones progesterone and estrogen until later delivery, when progesterone and estrogen levels plummet.[37]

Menopause

At menopause, breast atrophy occurs. The breasts tin decrease in size when the levels of circulating estrogen decline. The adipose tissue and milk glands likewise begin to wither. The breasts tin can also become enlarged from adverse side effects of combined oral contraceptive pills. The size of the breasts tin can likewise increase and decrease in response to weight fluctuations. Physical changes to the breasts are often recorded in the stretch marks of the skin envelope; they can serve as historical indicators of the increments and the decrements of the size and volume of a woman's breasts throughout the course of her life.[ citation needed ]

Breastfeeding

The primary function of the breasts, as mammary glands, is the nourishing of an infant with breast milk. Milk is produced in milk-secreting cells in the alveoli. When the breasts are stimulated past the suckling of her infant, the mother'due south brain secretes oxytocin. High levels of oxytocin trigger the wrinkle of muscle cells surrounding the alveoli, causing milk to flow forth the ducts that connect the alveoli to the nipple.[37]

Full-term newborns have an instinct and a demand to suck on a nipple, and breastfed babies nurse for both nutrition and for condolement.[38] Breast milk provides all necessary nutrients for the outset six months of life, and then remains an important source of nutrition, alongside solid foods, until at least one or two years of age.

Clinical significance

The breast is susceptible to numerous benign and malignant conditions. The nearly frequent benign weather are puerperal mastitis, fibrocystic breast changes and mastalgia.

Lactation unrelated to pregnancy is known as galactorrhea. It tin can exist caused by certain drugs (such as antipsychotic medications), farthermost physical stress, or endocrine disorders. Lactation in newborns is caused by hormones from the mother that crossed into the baby's bloodstream during pregnancy.

Breast cancer

Breast cancer is the virtually common cause of cancer death among women[39] and information technology is i of the leading causes of death among women. Factors that appear to be implicated in decreasing the risk of chest cancer are regular breast examinations by health care professionals, regular mammograms, cocky-examination of breasts, healthy diet, and practise to decrease backlog body fat,[40] and breastfeeding.[41]

Male breasts

Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. Normally, males produce lower levels of estrogens and college levels of androgens, namely testosterone, which suppress the effects of estrogens in developing excessive breast tissue. In boys and men, abnormal breast evolution is manifested as gynecomastia, the consequence of a biochemical imbalance betwixt the normal levels of estrogen and testosterone in the male body.[42] Around 70% of boys temporarily develop chest tissue during boyhood.[27] The condition usually resolves by itself within two years.[27] When male person lactation occurs, information technology is considered a symptom of a disorder of the pituitary gland.

Plastic surgery

Conventional mastectomy (top); pare sparing mastectomy and latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap reconstruction, prior to nipple reconstruction and tattooing (bottom).

Plastic surgery tin be performed to broaden or reduce the size of breasts, or reconstruct the breast in cases of deformative disease, such as breast cancer.[43] Breast augmentation and breast lift (mastopexy) procedures are done only for cosmetic reasons, whereas chest reduction is sometimes medically indicated.[19] In cases where a woman'due south breasts are severely asymmetrical, surgery tin be performed to either enlarge the smaller chest, reduce the size of the larger breast, or both.[xix]

Breast augmentation surgery generally does non interfere with future ability to breastfeed.[44] Chest reduction surgery more frequently leads to decreased sensation in the nipple-areola complex, and to low milk supply in women who choose to breastfeed.[44] Implants tin can interfere with mammography (breast x-rays images).

Club and culture

General

In Christian iconography, some works of art depict women with their breasts in their hands or on a platter, signifying that they died equally a martyr by having their breasts severed; one example of this is Saint Agatha of Sicily.[45]

Femen member participating in a protest

Femen is a feminist activist group which uses topless protests as part of their campaigns against sexual practice tourism[46] [47] religious institutions,[48] sexism, and homophobia.[49] Femen activists take been regularly detained by law in response to their protests.[50]

There is a long history of female breasts existence used by comedians equally a subject for comedy forage (due east.g., British comic Benny Hill'due south burlesque/slapstick routines).[51]

Art history

In European pre-celebrated societies, sculptures of female person figures with pronounced or highly exaggerated breasts were common. A typical case is the so-called Venus of Willendorf, one of many Paleolithic Venus figurines with ample hips and bosom. Artifacts such every bit bowls, rock carvings and sacred statues with breasts have been recorded from 15,000 BC upwardly to tardily antiquity all beyond Europe, North Africa and the Middle Due east.

Many female deities representing dear and fertility were associated with breasts and breast milk. Figures of the Phoenician goddess Astarte were represented as pillars studded with breasts. Isis, an Egyptian goddess who represented, among many other things, platonic motherhood, was often portrayed every bit suckling pharaohs, thereby confirming their divine status as rulers. Even certain male deities representing regeneration and fertility were occasionally depicted with chest-similar appendices, such equally the river god Hapy who was considered to be responsible for the almanac overflowing of the Nile.

Female breasts were besides prominent in Minoan art in the grade of the famous Serpent Goddess statuettes, and a few other pieces, though most female breasts are covered. In Ancient Greece there were several cults worshipping the "Kourotrophos", the suckling mother, represented by goddesses such every bit Gaia, Hera and Artemis. The worship of deities symbolized by the female breast in Hellenic republic became less common during the first millennium. The popular adoration of female goddesses decreased significantly during the ascent of the Greek city states, a legacy which was passed on to the later Roman Empire.[52]

During the eye of the first millennium BC, Greek civilisation experienced a gradual change in the perception of female breasts. Women in art were covered in wear from the cervix down, including female goddesses like Athena, the patron of Athens who represented heroic attempt. There were exceptions: Aphrodite, the goddess of love, was more often portrayed fully nude, though in postures that were intended to portray shyness or modesty, a portrayal that has been compared to modern pivot ups past historian Marilyn Yalom.[53] Although nude men were depicted standing upright, most depictions of female nudity in Greek art occurred "usually with drapery almost at mitt and with a forward-angle, self-protecting posture".[54] A popular legend at the time was of the Amazons, a tribe of fierce female person warriors who socialized with men simply for procreation and even removed ane breast to become better warriors (the idea being that the right breast would interfere with the operation of a bow and arrow). The legend was a popular motif in art during Greek and Roman antiquity and served as an antithetical cautionary tale.

  • 1825 oil painting entitled Tetuppa, a Native Female of the Sandwich Islands, by Robert Dampier

Torso image

Many women regard their breasts as of import to their sexual bewitchery, every bit a sign of femininity that is important to their sense of self. A adult female with smaller breasts may regard her breasts as less attractive.[55]

Clothing

As is customary in her culture, a bare-breasted Himba adult female of northern Namibia wears a traditional headdress and brim

Because breasts are mostly fatty tissue, their shape can—within limits—exist molded by clothing, such as foundation garments. Bras are commonly worn by nearly ninety% of Western women,[56] [57] [58] and are frequently worn for support.[59] The social norm in near Western cultures is to embrace breasts in public, though the extent of coverage varies depending on the social context. Some religions ascribe a special condition to the female person breast, either in formal teachings or through symbolism.[lx] Islam forbids free women from exposing their breasts in public.

Many cultures, including Western cultures in N America, associate breasts with sexuality and tend to regard bare breasts as immodest or indecent. In some cultures, similar the Himba in northern Namibia, bare-breasted women are normal. In some African cultures, for example, the thigh is regarded as highly sexualised and never exposed in public, but breast exposure is not taboo. In a few Western countries and regions female toplessness at a beach is acceptable, although it may non be adequate in the town heart.[ citation needed ]

Social attitudes and laws regarding breastfeeding in public vary widely. In many countries, breastfeeding in public is mutual, legally protected, and by and large not regarded as an issue. Notwithstanding, fifty-fifty though the exercise may be legal or socially accepted, some mothers may nevertheless exist reluctant to expose a chest in public to breastfeed[61] [62] due to actual or potential objections by other people, negative comments, or harassment.[63] Information technology is estimated that effectually 63% of mothers across the world accept publicly chest-fed.[64] Bare-breasted women are legal and culturally acceptable at public beaches in Commonwealth of australia and much of Europe.[ citation needed ] Filmmaker Lina Esco made a film entitled Free the Nipple, which is nearly "...laws against female toplessness or restrictions on images of female person, but not male, nipples", which Esco states is an example of sexism in order.[51]

Sexual feature

In some cultures, breasts play a role in human sexual activeness. In Western civilization, breasts have a "...hallowed sexual condition, arguably more fetishized than either sexual practice's genitalia".[51] Breasts and especially the nipples are amid the various homo erogenous zones. They are sensitive to the touch equally they have many nerve endings; and it is common to press or massage them with hands or orally before or during sexual activity. During sexual arousal, breast size increases, venous patterns beyond the breasts become more visible, and nipples harden. Compared to other primates, human breasts are proportionately large throughout adult females' lives. Some writers have suggested that they may accept evolved equally a visual indicate of sexual maturity and fertility.[65]

Many people regard bare female person breasts to exist aesthetically pleasing or erotic, and they tin elicit heightened sexual desires in men in many cultures. In the ancient Indian work the Kama Sutra, low-cal scratching of the breasts with nails and biting with teeth are considered erotic.[66] Some people show a sexual interest in female person breasts distinct from that of the person, which may be regarded as a breast fetish.[67] A number of Western fashions include clothing which accentuate the breasts, such equally the use of push-up bras and decollete (plunging neckline) gowns and blouses which show cleavage. While U.S. civilisation prefers breasts that are youthful and upright, some cultures venerate women with drooping breasts, indicating mothering and the wisdom of experience.[68]

Research conducted at the Victoria University of Wellington showed that breasts are often the outset thing men wait at, and for a longer time than other trunk parts.[69] The writers of the study had initially speculated that the reason for this is due to endocrinology with larger breasts indicating higher levels of estrogen and a sign of greater fertility,[69] [70] but the researchers said that "Men may be looking more often at the breasts because they are simply aesthetically pleasing, regardless of the size."[69]

Some women written report achieving an orgasm from nipple stimulation, but this is rare.[71] [72] Research suggests that the orgasms are genital orgasms, and may also be directly linked to "the genital expanse of the brain". In these cases, it seems that sensation from the nipples travels to the aforementioned part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix. Nipple stimulation may trigger uterine contractions, which and so produce a awareness in the genital expanse of the brain.[73] [74] [75]

Anthropomorphic geography

There are many mountains named after the breast because they resemble it in appearance and then are objects of religious and bequeathed veneration as a fertility symbol and of well-being. In Asia, there was "Breast Mountain", which had a cave where the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma (Da Mo) spent much time in meditation.[76] Other such breast mountains are Mount Elgon on the Republic of uganda–Kenya border; Beinn Chìochan and the Maiden Paps in Scotland; the Bundok ng Susong Dalaga ('Maiden's breast mountains') in Talim Isle, Philippines, the twin hills known as the Paps of Anu ( Dá Chích Anann or 'the breasts of Anu'), near Killarney in Ireland; the ii,086 g high Tetica de Bacares or La Tetica in the Sierra de Los Filabres , Espana; Khao Nom Sao in Thailand, Cerro Las Tetas in Puerto Rico; and the Breasts of Aphrodite in Mykonos, amid many others. In the United States, the Teton Range is named afterwards the French word for 'nipple'.[77]

Run into also

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Bibliography

  • Hollander, Anne (1993). Seeing through clothes. Berkeley: Academy of California Printing. ISBN978-0-520-08231-ane.
  • Morris, Desmond The Naked Ape: a zoologist's study of the human animal Runted Books, Canada. 1967
  • Yalom, Marilyn (1998). A history of the breast. London: Pandora. ISBN978-0-86358-400-8.
  • Venes, Donald (2013). Taber's cyclopedic medical lexicon. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis. ISBN978-0-8036-2977-half dozen.
  • Lawrence, Ruth (2016). Breastfeeding : a guide for the medical profession, 8th edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. ISBN978-0-323-35776-0.

External links

  • "Are Women Evolutionary Sexual activity Objects?: Why Women Accept Breasts". Archived from the original on ii December 2011.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast

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